There Are Many Forms of Crime Prevention and Crime Reduction. Explore Two Such Strategies and Illustrate with Practical Examples free essay sample

There are many forms of crime prevention and crime reduction. Explore two such strategies and illustrate with practical examples. Background Crime prevention has been in existence since the nineteenth century. It is linked with the period marking the emergence of the modern state. During this period the community handles it own crime preventative measure but it was hard to sustain it. However, they perceived a belief that the criminal justice system could prevent crime alone and propaganda to the effect of their ability to do this were an important element in their legitimation. The optimism of the late – 1950s, that the system could be tailored to control crime, initially, gave way to crisis management, as measures such as the suspended sentence, parole and community service were designed to take some pressure off our bulging prisons, and latterly melted into a pessimism that â€Å"nothing works† (Gilling, 1997). It was against this transformation that crime prevention started to gain grounds. We will write a custom essay sample on There Are Many Forms of Crime Prevention and Crime Reduction. Explore Two Such Strategies and Illustrate with Practical Examples or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In 1960, Home Secretary established the Cornish Committee on crime prevention and in 1963; Home office’s National Crime Prevention Centre at Strafford for training purposes was established. The Cornish Committee reported officially in 1965 and in the report focus on the role of the police and the wider society in the prevention of crime. It also `suggested the appointment of specialist crime prevention officers and department. The Cornish Committee also suggested the establishment of crime prevention panel as a means of maintaining/ building relationships between the police and other organisations like; corporate body ,voluntary organisations and statutory services to enable the panel to identify local crime problems and play a role in the prevention of crime. Newburn, 2007). The Cornish Committee had grasped the central significance of unfocused crime prevention and the notion of collaboration. Home office report pointed out that the prevention of crime in terms of blocking opportunities depended on people taking measures to protect themselves and their property from potential offenders. During the 1980s the attention moved from purely situational crime approach to a c ombination of situational and social crime prevention initiatives. In 1980 a report by Home Office working Group on crime prevention were presented stating that crime prevention should follow a methodology that was problem- oriented rather than practice-oriented. The police beca me more considerate to the idea of partnership in crime prevention. A Home Office circular released in 1984 was described some years later by commentator as ‘the most comprehensive statement of British policy on crime prevention’. This circular stated the traditional role of the police in the prevention of crime, also outline the potential contribution of other agencies in the prevention of crime since some factors affecting crime is positioned outside the control of the police. What crime prevention Crime prevention seeks to reduce the risk of crime occurring in a community by influencing their cause and preventing future occurrence. In most cases, crime prevention is always applied where people are not involved in crime but they may be at risk in the future. Crime prevention considers people (Those who are not involved in criminal activities and tries to prevent them from getting into criminal activities). It also looks at places and situation that have not been troubled by criminal activities and tries to abate such places and from criminal activities occurring. (Criminal Justices Reform). Gilling (1997) states that: ‘ crime prevention incorporates not only the practice of the entire criminal justice system, but also those of many other social and public policies, as well as those of private citizens and private enterprise’. National Crime Prevention Institution (1986) in the USA, distinguishes between direct crime prevention control, which is proactively addressing opportunities for crime and indirect crime prevention control which are believed to cover everything else. Crime prevention looks at people who are into criminal activities and ask what can be done to prevent them from going into crime; crime prevention also looks at places and situations which are not troubled by criminal activity and seeks how crime can never be a significant problem. Brantingham and Faust (1976) describe crime prevention as â€Å"probably the most overworked and least understood concept in contemporary criminology†. He distinguished crime prevention using medical epidemiology differentiating between the primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. †¢Primary prevention are those actions targeted at the general public with the aim to reducing crime before it occurs. †¢Secondary prevention are those actions targeted at those considered ‘risk population’ †¢Tertiary prevention are actions targeted at criminals/offenders to reduce offending and harm in offending. According to Brantingham faust primary intervention are regarded as â€Å"the ideal objective† as they seek to prevent criminal condition in the society by being proactive. Secondary intervention identifies and treats those who might at risk of crime while tertiary intervention is mainly the criminal justice system and its correction contribution in the offender life. What is crime reduction? Crime reduction is people, places or situations already know for criminal activity. Crime reduction starts with identifying the current problem and proffering solution to reduce the criminal activity and the harm being caused. Most crime prevention approaches takes place in existing community where there is some level of criminal activity going on, strategies developed to prevent future occurrence of crime is refer to as crime prevention or crime reduction as both concept are aimed at preventing future occurrences of criminality and reduce the rate of crime that occurs. (John lea 2007) Situational crime prevention Situational crime prevention takes theoretical framework from ‘opportunity theory’ of crime; it is stimulated by the development and refinement of the criminologies of everyday life. Particularly, Rational Choice Theory and Routine Activity Theory. Routine activity theory is associated with Marcus Felon and it states that; increase in crime rates have accompanied changing patterns of routine activities, which have the three necessary conditions for crime, namely a motivated offender, a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardians. According to felon ( cited in Newburn 2007) the lavatories in the bus station were an exact problem, being the site for criminal activities such as: homosexuality, theft of luggage and wallet and drug taking. Changes made at the bus station produced a significant difference by increasing security and reducing crime. The best option to tighten opportunities is by changing the physical environment which is often referred to â€Å"hardening target. Rational Choice Theory is connected with Ron Clarke which has great influence on opportunity; it focuses attention on how certain crime facilitators can influence the choice structuring properties of situation, making criminal event more of a choice. The basic ssumption of Rational Choice Theory is that; â€Å"crime is purposive behaviour and it is designed to meet the offender’s need such as; money, status, sex etceteras. Meeting these needs involves the making of choices and decisions, constrained as these are by limits of time and ability and the availability of relevant information. (Clarke 1995). Rational Choice Theory does not focus on the individual’s background, rather on the situational dynamics concerned, whether or not t o commit a crime. Clarke (2005) states that; Criminal will commit greater crime if the encounter more criminal opportunities. †¢Encountering such opportunities will lead to individual seeking more opportunities. †¢Individual who does not have criminal tendencies may be drawn into criminal behaviour due to criminal opportunities and temptation †¢Some law abiding individuals may be attracted to certain crime if there regularly encounter easy opportunities for those crime. Supporter of situational crime prevention argues that it easier to change the situation than to change the behaviour of an individual. Examples of the use of situational crime prevention as strategy for preventing crime include: Target hardening This is often very effective way of reducing criminal opportunities is to restrict the the thief or vandal by physical barriers through the use of screens, safes, locks or reinforced materials. Target hardening include Changes in design e. g. a slug(fake coin) rejecter device reduced the use of slugs(fake coin) in New York parking meters (Decker, 1972) and, This devise is also use in the ticket machines of the London Underground (Clarke etal. 1994). Transparent screens to protect the bus driver, help reduced assaults on transit system (Poyner et al. , 1988); anti-bandit screens on post office counters in London in the 1980s was conservatively estimated by Ekblom (1988b) to have cut robberies by 40 percent; and the installation of fixed and pop-up screens is believed to have been an important element in reducing over-the-counter robberies in Australian banks (Clarke et al, 19 91). A strengthened coin box has been identified in several studies as a significant factor in reducing incidents of theft and damage to public telephones in Britain and Australia (Wilson, 1990; Challinger, 1991; Bridgeman, 1997). The introduction of steering locks on old and new cars in Germany in 1963 give a substantial reduction in the rate of car theft. Deflecting offenders At football matches in the UK, rival groups of fans have been separated in the stadium to prevent fighting and also their arrival and departure has been scheduled to avoid the periods of waiting around that promote trouble (Clarke, 1983). To reduce the closing time brawl, the last bus was schedule to leave immediately after pub closing time. Hope (1985) has suggested that crowds of drunken young people on the streets at closing time could also be reduced by avoiding the concentration of licensed premises in specific parts of the city. The leasing of a downtown parking space in Arlington, Texas, reduced crime problems associated with severe congestion on weekend nights in nearby streets, by providing a venue for teenage cruising, Bell and Burke (1989). Reducing temptation In some city streets it is dangerous to wear gold chains or leave cars parked which could attract joyriders. Some temptations are not as obvious as others. For example, phone directories which are gender-neutral could reduce obscene phone-calls to women. It has also been found in experimental research that the presence of a weapon, such as a gun, can instigate aggressive responses in some people, this is known as the weapons effect (Berkowitz and LePa ge, 1967). Another example of reducing temptation is rapid repair on the grounds that leaving damaged items unrepaired invites further attacks. Samdahl and Christensen (1985) gave support for this policy by proving that picnic tables that had been carved and scratched were more than twice as likely to be damaged further than new tables. CRITISM OF SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION Some critics have pointed out that; situational crime prevention is only a temporary solution and that social development is the only way to uproot the causes of crime and reduce crime rate. Social programs are already are targeted at many of the conditions that social development proponents are trying to change, so the incremental changes that can be achieved in the name of crime prevention are likely to be insignificant. Therefore, possible to change the lives of a small number of people through social development programs, but it is much more difficult to expect these programs to have an impact on the overall crime rates. Although there have been catalogue of successes of situational prevention, it should be noted, that situational prevention is not one hundred percent effective. Though reductions in crime may be considerable (sometimes over 50 percent), situational measures usually make better, not eliminate a problem. In addition, situational measures do not always work as intended for a variety of reasons, including the following: 1. Measures have sometimes failed due to technical or administrative ineptitude, as when anti-climb paint to prevent school break-ins was too thinly applied (Hope and Murphy, 1983), or when a project to overcome vandalism by replacing broken windows with toughened glass proved too complicated for school maintenance staff to administer (Gladstone, 1980). 2. Some measures have been too easily overcome by offenders, as in the case of the early steering locks in Britain and the U. S. which proved vulnerable to slide hammers (Clarke and Harris, 1992). . Too much vigilance has sometimes been assumed on the part of ordinary citizens or guards: Security guards hardly monitor CCTV systems as closely as CCTV designers expect; people pay far less attention to the street outside their houses than is sometimes assumed by neighborhood watch schemes and defensible space designs (Mayhew, 1979); and people hardly respond to car alarms so that the main result of their increasing use has been to reduce fu rther the quality of life in cities (Clarke and Harris, 1992). 4. Measures have occasionally provoked offenders to unacceptable growth as in the case of the bullet-proofing of token booths on the U. S. subway which resulted in attacks on booths with petrol-fueled fires (Dwyer, 1991). 5. Some measures have aided rather than frustrated crime: Ekblom (1991) gives the example of pickpockets on the London Underground who stationed themselves near signs warning of theft to see which pockets would be checked by passengers on reading the signs. There has been much focus on increasing the penalties rather than on preventing crime. Situational approaches have suffered from the fact that any criminologists are not comfortable with the theoretical perspective that does not focus on offenders and victims, but rather on the situational context. There have also been concerns about whether situational techniques may lead to a fortress society where actions are always subject to scrutiny. SOCIAL CRIME PREVENTION Social crime preventions are interventions targeted t oward preventing criminality or criminal activities focusing on people or group instead situation. It also considers the factors that motivate or encourage some individual (especially the youth) to engage in criminal activities. Newburn 2007) Social crime prevention provides interventions that will make young people grow up to be responsible/ law abiding citizens that is, not having inclination to offend others or commit crime. Social Crime Prevention can be divided into two broad types namely: Developmental and Community Crime Prevention. Developmental Prevention: Development prevention focuses on young people since they are more at risk of offending behaviour. Longitudinal research has pointed out that some young people are more at risk of offending than others; some of these risks identified are listed below: †¢Social deprivation Living in decaying overcrowded areas †¢A high degree of recklessness †¢ low school attainment †¢Poor parental care and poor discipli ne †¢Broken homes and parental conflict The main aim of this approach is to identify the risk factor in relation to the offender or the offending group (the youth which are more vulnerable to offending) and proffering solutions that will counter them. For example social deprivation can be tackled through income distribution, housing improvement and better education. The most obvious form of Juvenile Crime Prevention is associated Street Policing which has to do with targeting the oung people, deterring from the street before get committed to criminality. Community crime prevention was initiated to strengthen communities and restore informal security and social control of crime. This involved agencies that may have different goal, existing in an environment, partnering to reduce the fear of crime and improve the community. That is, neighbourhood taking responsibility of their security, developing a working relationship with the police to reduce the opportunity for crime and solv ing problem inherent in the community. Community Crime Prevention does pro-active crime prevention (problem oriented policing), the problem confronting the community is being identified by the community then involving the police in solving or reducing the problem (Newburn, 2007). Social crime prevention takes its theoretical perspective from â€Å"Broken window theory†. Wilson and kelling (1982) argues that if a window in a building is broken and left unrepaired that soon the rest of the windows will be broken. The entire window getting broken will not just happen in a day, if a broken window is left unrepaired it is a sign that nobody cares, these will encourage more windows to be broken. According to Wilson and kelling, ‘we must curb the sign of disorder by taking action to clean up the street’. For effective juvenile crime prevention, there should be deterrence that is, proactive action designed stop the youth from certain activities by allowing the police to remove youth from the street beyond certain time. (McLaughlin el at 2005) CRITICISM OF SOCIAL CRIME PREVENTION Social crime prevention probably has less intuitive appeal than situational crime prevention as a putative solution to crime, because the causes it seeks to address are more distant than the immediate situation, and because the preventive strategies are often uncertain, diffuse, and seemingly only of benefit in the medium to long term. It is more likely to find favour amongst those on who support progressive social reforms to counteract the negative criminogenic consequences of market societies. These are some of the various criticisms that have been levelled at the approach. Firstly, there are range of questions revolving a round the issue of effectiveness. Critics (Clarke and Cornish, 1983) have pointed out that what could be regarded as a mass exercise in social crime prevention, namely the establishment of the welfare state from the late-1940s through to the 1970s, coincided not with a period in which national crime rates fell, but rather with a period in which we witnessed a substantial rise, contrary to what many had anticipated. Others (Crawford, 1998) question the logic of such thinking, pointing out that crime rates actually rose faster f rom the end of the 1970s through to the 1990s a period marked by the dismantling of parts of the welfare state, and substantially widening income inequalities. The point remains, nevertheless, that the kinds of changes required by social crime prevention, to living standards, quality of life issues, education, parenting, a developing sense of community and so forth, are all essentially long-term changes that are manifestly harder to achieve than the relatively quick and easy manipulations of the physical environment required by the situational approach (Pease, 2002). Secondly, set of criticisms revolves around the issue of the accuracy of social crime prevention interventions, and the question of whether they hit the right targets, or are themselves the right interventions. The main underlying problem here is that the primary targets of social crime prevention are potential offenders; that is, people who have not yet been processed through the criminal justice system, and who are therefore not officially known. In the absence of ‘hard knowledge’ of those who are likely to offend, practitioners have to rely upon ‘soft knowledge’, in the form of social scientific prediction, which as we have seen is based upon the possession of risk factors, or the highcrime location in which a person lives. Yet these predictions are fraught with problems: people may possess certain risk factors and yet not go on to offend, and most people who live in high-crime areas do not in fact turn to crime. This means that interventions may end up being targeted at people who do not really need them for purposes of crime prevention. On the one hand, in the context of scarce resources, this might be seen as a potential waste; though on the other hand, because there are reasons, other than crime prevention, for addressing social deprivation, inadequate parenting, and other risk factors, this might be regarded as a perfectly acceptable opportunity cost, or even a spin-off, of any intervention. The third general criticism that can be directed at social crime prevention is that, like situational crime prevention, it can produce unwanted side-effects. Risk-based thinking has its own dynamic which can end up widening the net of social control, and a good example of this is the way that developmental crime prevention has extended its reach to the foetal stage: we can now identify children at risk of criminality before they have been born, by targeting their risky mothers, and ‘helping’ them with parenting skills and other forms of social support. When such help is offered on a voluntary basis this may be just about acceptable, but where compulsion or coercion is involved, there are major ethical concerns. In conclusion, crime prevention ultimately boils down to approaches that rest upon different understandings of the causes of crime, namely situational crime prevention and social crime prevention. Situational crime prevention now boasts an array of often highly creative techniques oriented towards the manipulation of opportunities that makes crime harder to commit. Social crime prevention incorporates developmental measures that seek in effect to neutralise the risk factors that threaten to propel risky individuals—particularly young people—into crime, and (community measures that seek variously to bring organisation to disorganised communities, or to strengthen communities by addressing the structural disadvantages that have resulted, ultimately, in their social exclusion). Each approach has its attractions, but also its flaws, though these are often specific to particular measures, deployed in particular contexts, rather than to the approach as a whole (not all situational crime prevention results in displacement, for example, whilst not all social crime prevention hits the wrong targets). The existence of situational and social crime prevention attests not only to different understandings of the causes of crime, but also to contested understandings. That is to say that the choice of how best to prevent crime is not just a technical one, although it is ften dressed up in this way by rationalistic problem-oriented processes, devices such as the Problem Analysis Triangle(the crime triangle), and preventive technologies themselves, such as CCTV, that have an intuitive, common-sense appeal. References Clarke, R. V. (1980). Situational Crime Prevention: Theory and Practice. British Journal of Criminology. 20, 136–147 Clarke, R. V. (1997). Introducti on. In: R. V. Clarke (ed. ), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (2nd ed. ). Guilderland, NY: Harrow and Heston Clarke, R. V. and Weisburd, D, (1994). Diffusion of Crime Control Benefits. In R. V. Clarke (ed. ), Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 2. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press Clarke, R. V. and Mayhew, P. (1980). Designing out Crime. London: H. M. S. O. Cornish. D. B. and Clarke, R. V. (eds. ) (1986). The Reasoning Criminal. Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York: Springer-Verlag. Cornish. D. B. and Clarke, R. V. (1987). Understanding Crime Displacement: An Application of Rational Choice Theory. Decker, J. F. (1972). Curbside Deterrence: An Analysis of the Effect of a Slug Rejector Device. Coin View Window and Warning Labels on Slug Usage in New York City Parking Meters. Department of Safety and Security. (1998). In Service of Safety: White Paper on Safety and Security 1999-2004. Pretoria Donziger, S. (1996). The Real War on Crime: The Report of the National Criminal Justice Commission. New York: Harper Collins. Habitat. (1995). Habitat press release, 27 April 1995 Ekblom, P. (1988). Preventing Post Office Robberies in London: Effects and Side Effects. Journal of Security Administration 11:36-43 Garland, D. (1996). The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in Contemporary Society. The British Journal of Criminology. 36(4), 445-471. Home Offi ce (1991) Safer Communities: The Local Delivery of Crime Prevention Through the Partnership Approach. London: Home Offi ce. Hope, T. (1995) ‘Community crime prevention’ in M. Tonry and D. Farrington (eds) Building a Safer Society. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Hope, T. and Foster, J. (1992) ‘Confl icting forces: changing the dynamics of crime and community on a ‘problem’ estate’. British Journal of Criminology 32(4): 488–504. Hough, M. , Clarke, R. , and Mayhew, P. (1980) ‘Introduction’ in R. Clarke and P. Mayhew (eds) Designing Out Crime. London: HMSO. Hughes, G. (1998) Understanding Crime Prevention. Buckingham: Open University Press. Hughes, G. , McLaughlin, E. , and Muncie, J. (eds) (2002) Crime Prevention and Community Safety: New Directions. London: Sage. Jeffery, C. R. (1971). Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications Jeffery, C. R. (1977). Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications Knox, J. , Pemberton, A. , and Wiles, P. (2000) Partnerships in Community

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Sender uses the key to encrypt the information, whereas the receiver uses the key to decrypt the encrypted inform ation. Kester and Danquah says that symmetric and asymmetric are the two main cryptographic algorithms. Symmetric key algorithm exchanges the public key which is used to encrypt and decrypt the message. Asymmetric algorithm provides more security than the symmetric algorithm since it uses both public and private keys for generating the cipher text. Various cryptographic techniques have been discovered based on the symmetric and asymmetric algorithms. This paper discuss the three major cryptographic techniques, square matrix algorithm, public key exchange algorithm using matrix, and asymmetric key algorithm using arithmetic equations. The most basic cryptographic technique is square matrix algorithm. Som and Banerjee says that in this technique the data is placed in the square matrix as in Figure 1 (2013, p. 1). The authors says that a matrix is considered based on the size of the simple text and the letters in the simple text are placed diagonally in the matrix (2013). Som and Banerjee explains that the key is generated by adding the position values of the letters in the diagonal position (p. 1).The author explains that the letters in the square are read serially and the position values are added with the key value obtained. Som and Banerjee says that for the each of the position value obtained the chipper text is generated (p. 2). Som and Banerjee explains this algorithm taking the simple text as â€Å"DIFFERENTIATIONS† (p. 2). Figure 1. Plain text are placed into a square matrix (Som, Banerjee, 2013, p. 2) Som and Banerjee describes that the key is generated as addi ng the position value of ‘D’, position value of ‘E’, position value of ‘T’, position value of ‘S’ which results as 38, the value of the each letters are like A being1 up to Z being 26 (2013, p. 2). Som and Banerjee states that the intermediate chipper text generated by adding the key value with the each of the position value is â€Å"PURQRQZMDFFAUUZE† as in Figure 2 (p. 2). Figure 2. The matric table of the intermediate cipher text (Som, Banerjee, 2013, p. 2) According to Som and Banerjee intermediate chipper text is converted into binary form and the sub sectioned (2013, p. 3). Som and Banerjee says that the binary converted data is combined with the next set of blocks (p. 3). This procedure is followed for all the sub sectioned blocks. In this way the each of the block is formed resulting in the actual cipher text. In this example the actual cipher text is 640 680 656 2592 2624 2592 180 152 24159191040 20401094936 70 260 680 680 720 517. Som and Banerjee explain that the decryption of the cipher is converting the number into its binary form (p. 3). The authors also explains that the binary data is then divided into a set of blocks and the individual letter for the each block is obtained (2013). Som and Banerjee states that the plain text is obtained by subtracting the position value of the intermediate text with the shared key value (2013). This method is one of the easiest method to secure the information. Public key exchange algorithm using matrix is another cryptographic techniques. Kester explains the algorithm with help of two parties A and B. According to Kester an individual private key will be chosen for the parties A and B as APVK and BPVK respectively (2012). The author syas that the public key of the party A and B, APUK and BPUK is obtained from the private key using an algorithm, considering the algorithm being CGN as shown in the Figure 3 and Figure 4 respectively (2012). Figure 3. Public key generation for the party A (Kester, 2012, p. 79) Figure 4. Public key generation for the party B (Kester, 2012, p. 79) Kester also says that the public key, APUK and BPUK, is shared between both the parties (2012, p. 79). According to author the private key is not exchanged between the parties (2012, p. 79). Kester describes that the plain text is encrypted by the party A and sent to party B (2012, p. 79). The author also says that the encryption is performed using the private key of party A and the public of the party B, since the public is shared with the party A (2012). Kester explains that the encrypted text is sent to the party B (2012, p. 79). Kester states that the message received by party B is decrypted using the private key of the party A (2012, p.79). The author describes that the public key is primarily used for authentication and private keys are used for encryption (2012). According to Kester, â€Å"The decryption of the message of a particular cipher text will only be possible if and only if the message sent is intended to be read by that recipient† (2012, p. 80). This algorithm is the basic functionality for all encryption and decryption methods. Asymmetric key algorithm using arithmetic equations is a mathematical cryptographic technique. According to Kester and Danquah (2012, p. 71), the intermediate cipher text is generated using twelve equation and the main cipher text is generated using the shared key. Kester and Danquah state that there are two keys for a complete cryptographic procedure which are public key for authentication, private key for encryption and decryption (2012). Kester and Danquah describes that a software was developed based on the public key and the private key (2012). Kester and Danquah also states that only eight string of data can be used by the software (2012). Therefore this algorithm is explains the method to generate the chipper text using the software. According to Kester and Danquah, a constant value a chose between which below the number of letter of the plain text (2012).The authors state that the public key if the indivual part is generated by applying the mod function on the constant value (2012). The authors also say that the private key is any value chose below the number of letter in the plain text (2012). The authors state that the cipher text is generated using on the private and the public keys using the mod function (2012). The authors state that the public key is shared between two users and the private key is generated for individual users (2012, p. 71). Kester and Danquah says that the decryption is the reverse process of the encryption following the algorithm form the step 12 to the step 1 (2012). The authors also say that the public generated id unique for sender and the receiver and is dependent on the private key of the sender and the receiver (2012, p. 72). Kester and Danquah state that â€Å"The cipher for the public key from the private key and vice versa depends on the function used to generate keys† (2012, p. 73). This algorithm is an arithmetic cryptographic techniques generating the cipher text based on the position of the text place. Square matrix algorithm, public key exchange algorithm using matrix, and asymmetric key algorithm using arithmetic equations are the three major cryptographic techniques. They are several different cryptographic methods to secure the message delivered through the internet. Mukesh and Subashini says that biometric algorithm has been implemented widely and is proved that the data is secured effectively (2012, p. 19). References Kester, Q. A., (2012). A Public-Key Exchange Cryptographic Technique using Matrix, IEEE, 978-1-4673-4789-1/12, 78-81. Kester, Q. A., Danquah, P., (2012). A Novel Cryptographic key technique, IEEE, 978-1-4673-4789-1/12, 70-73. Mukesh, R., Subashini, V. J., (2012). Fingerprint based Authentication system using threshold visual cryptographic technique, IEEE, IBSN: 978-81-909042-2-3, 16-19. Som, S., Banerjee, M., (2013). Cryptographic Technique by Square Matrix and Single Point Crossover on Binary Field, IEEE, 978-1-4673-2821-0/12, 106.

The Theme of Life and Death in Birches, by Robert Frost Essay -- Rober

The Theme of Life and Death in Birches, by Robert Frost The poem "Birches," by Robert Frost, illustrates the authors ability to take what seems to be the mundane activities of life and turn it into something that holds a deeper meaning. The poem taken literally revolves around a boy living on the New England countryside "whose only play was what he found himself," in this case, riding birch branches. The poem is very literal in language but by analyzing each line, different themes and interpretations may be found. A more deeper and figurative meaning to "Birches" is its theme of life and death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The poem begins with a description of the adventures of a young boy. The first half of "Birches" portrays the youthful pleasures of a lonely boy. Frost uses vivid description to create a picture of the birch branches bending under the weight of ice storms. " They are dragged to the witheredAnd they seem not to break; though once they are bowedSo low for long, they never right themselves." This statement has an underlying meaning that can be paralleled to a life theme: No matter what burdens suffered through life, an individual does not break but rather adapts. Another theme occurs when the boy had been swinging on the branches but then "Truth broke in." This can be interpreted that people like to live in a dream world, but in the end, reality prevails.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second half of "Birches" begins with the boy riding the trees, "One by one he subdued his father's treesBy riding them down over and over again." Then, Frost addresses another theme of living in that one must proceed cautiously through life but not too cautiously. This is clearly presented when he says, "He learned all there wasTo learn about not launchi... ..., as in "Birches," people learn to adapt to what they are dealt. Most times, the ending to a chapter in a person's life does not occur the way that they envisioned it, but they would not trade their memories for regrets.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though Frost lived during modern times of the 1900's, his writing style is better compared to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow or William Cullen Bryant who both lived during the 1800's. That is because of his use of traditional language and style in his poems. Frost has a certain subtlety in his poems because of the completely literal writing language that he uses. The simplicity of "Birches" is what makes it such a well-known literary work, because to find what he means in many of his poems, including "Birches," often times one must overanalyze. Overall, Frost conveys a sense of realist optimism by using metaphorical and symbolic language.

Sales force management

Transactional sales promotion involves the exchange of goods and service at a cost between the seller and buyer. The relational promotion of sales entails the creation of conducive sales environment between the sales promoter and the consumer that attracts the interest of the consumer to use the particular product. The creation of hospitality is very important in sales promotion. In history, the literature of marketing theories has been known to operate on transactional exchange orientation. This has been so in both business- business transactions as well as the consumer to marketer exchange. The theory of classical economics is credited for having led to the development of ‘law of exchange’ by Alderson in 1965. Transactional orientation can further be traced form the development of neoclassical economics which has had formulated assumptions towards maximization of utility and the nature of man in economics. According to research studies, both the relational and transactional marketing strategies have been found to coexist. This means that a consumer may choose on whether to engage a new business relationship with a supplier, try to nourish it and come up with a relationship that is valuable or choose to manage low value- business relationship (Honeycutt, Ford, 2003). However, it is valued to have strong business relationship in any transaction. The ultimate business performance can be achieved through an effective integration of business relationships managements balanced on the framework of transactional economics costs. The interaction of either level is optimized through testing models in the environment, business transaction exchanges, networking and relational governance with a track of its performance. Sales promotion in America is historically not only as old as mankind, but also as old as the art of giving. When a gift is offered to some one, it does not only create a good relationship but also generate a desire for a purchase of the same or similar commodity to offer it as gift to other friends. The art has grown over ages through drastic changes in the media level, personal contact, billboards, and currently the gift sales promotion. The promotional accessories, by the use of branded commodities as well as commercial gifts are the most preferred promotional method currently. This is outweighing the popular traditional means of media broadcast in many ways. People want tangible goods or services brought to their door step. They also want to have an experience on it before purchasing. Therefore, it is good for sales promoters to adjust with quality and give more gifts to consumers as a sales promotion exercise. Some commodities for promotion include biro pens, school bags, mugs, capes and flash drives (USB) which bear the company brand names or promotional tags. Other ways of sales promotion include face to face sales, publicity and media advertisement. Whatever kind of sales promotion if directed to the retailer or wholesaler, then it is referred to as ‘trade sales promotion,’ while when the sales promotion is directed to the consumer, then it is called ‘consumer sales promotion’. The use of reliable packaging method can be a means of attracting consumers in large numbers. This is called ‘price pack deal’ and it is bound to increase sales by more than 25%. Standardized coupons are used in sales promotion. They are either placed on the daily news papers, in phone texts, on the shelf or even as online. When consumers come across these, they tend to be attracted and may end up purchasing the items (Honeycutt, Ford, 2003). Finally, price adjustment strategy also does well in sales promotion. Lowering product price attracts higher demand from consumers.

Jail vs. Prison

Jail vs. Prison Jail vs. Prison Jail vs. Prison By Maeve Maddox A reader asks, Can the words  jail and prison be used interchangeably? In colloquial usage, the words jail and prison are often used interchangeably in reference to any place where people are locked up for a legal offense. Jail is the usual choice when speaking of imprisonment in the abstract. For example: A man like that belongs in jail. If you ask me, I’d put him in jail and throw away the key. The connotation of jail is less severe than that of prison. When the words are used in reference to actual places of legal confinement, there is a distinct difference between a jail and a prison. In most US states, jails are short-term facilities operated by local authorities, whereas prisons are long-term facilities operated by the state or federal government. When people are arrested for anything, from drunk driving to murder, they will be temporarily confined in a jail. For lack of more appropriate facilities, mentally ill people are often placed in jail. Note: So many mentally ill people are jailed or imprisoned in the United States that, according to clinical psychologist Dean Aufderheide, â€Å"[T]here is no doubt that our jails and prisons have become America’s major mental health facilities, a purpose for which they were never intended.† Typically, jail is for: 1. People who are being held pending a plea agreement, trial, or sentencing; 2. People who have been convicted of a misdemeanor criminal offense and are serving a sentence of less than a year; 3. People who have been sentenced to a term longer than a year and are waiting to be transferred to a long-term facility. Prisons are for convicted felons who have been sentenced to a term of one year or longer. Here are some quotations that fail to distinguish between jail (short-term) and prison (long-term): Al Capone was sentenced to 11 years in jail for failure to pay four years’ worth of taxes.- Political blogger. I hope his sentence is long enough so his jail cell will become his coffin.- Victim of convicted swindler Bernard Madoff, whose sentence is for a term of 150 years. Man remains in jail 6 years without conviction- Headline, Las Vegas Review-Journal. Man faces 11 years in jail for punching elderly man over free Nutella samples- Headline, The Independent. Venezuelas opposition denounced the sentencing of politician Leopoldo Lopez to nearly 14 years in jail.- News article, The Huffington Post. Most speakers will probably continue to use jail informally to mean â€Å"a place of incarceration.† Professional writers, on the other hand, may be expected to observe a distinction between jail and prison in formal contexts. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Definitely use "the" or "a"A While vs AwhileNominalized Verbs

speed limit essays

speed limit essays Should Highway Speed Limits Be Increased? Should highway speed limits be increased? Should we strike down every sign that the government posts and uses to regulate the speed limit on the thousands of highways around the country? Should we trust the driving ability of each and every person to drive within a reasonably safe speed? The response that most people lean toward is one of negativity. People automatically assume that the speeds presently posted on our highways are there only for our own protection. People do not believe that the government is knowingly implementing speed limits that are below a safe speed for a given roadway. It is true that the government claims to set speed limits that are for the public well being. As the United States Department of Transportation puts it, "Speed limits are appropriate speeds based on the traffic of an area, road conditions, weather, and the lighting" (The Star Ledger). But the fact of the matter is that their arguments have no factual basis. Suppose the government is really setting speed limits that are safe. If this were true, speed limits would change constantly. If the roadway were wet, if the traffic is thick, or the visibility is bad at a certain point in time then the speed limit would have to change continuously. But, the government can't be on the highway twenty-four hours of the day changing signs. If the government wants to set a safe speed standard then it must be much more realistic. A driver knows their ability as well a s their vehicles ability under diverse conditions. If the government tries to tell society that the faster speeds they are traveling is harmful; people will not feel that the government is looking out for their safety. They will instead feel as if though they were being treated as children. Therefor the speed limit on highways should be increased, and individuals should be allowed to drive at a safe "high" speed without being held back by an un...

Read article and write answers questions Coursework

Read article and write answers questions - Coursework Example The wage increase will be larger in the long run. Absorption of foreign labour into the work force is likely to cause a decline in average wages in the short run because most of the new immigrants laborers will be paid less than the domestic workers, however, this decline will only be temporary. Wages would rise greatly in the long run because businesses will begin investing to take advantage of the increased labour force. Increased immigration results in an influx of new laborers with a wide range of skills thus promoting specialization. Highly skilled immigrant laborers would generate more productive innovations thus expanding the productivity. Highly skilled and unskilled American workers are likely to gain the least from immigration because they will face stiff competition from their respective new immigrants. In addition, their relative income would decline by 0.3% because they are easily replaced by new

What is knowledge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

What is knowledge - Essay Example Diverse methodological approaches and various working definitions of knowledge has further created confusions. While knowledge management might yet be able to be claimed to a coherent scientific paradigm, recent publications indicate an increased conceptual and methodological rigor is needed to establish knowledge management as recognized scholarly discipline. The emergence of research and practical information on aspects of managing knowledge indicates that knowledge management is more than the latest management fad. Epistemology, the study of knowledge, has a log honorable tradition in philosophy, starting with early Greek philosophers. Questions such as†what do we know?† and â€Å"what does it mean to say that someone know something?† have been discussed in philosophical literature. The idea of a formal logical analysis of reasoning about knowledge is somewhat more recent, but goes back at least to Von Wright’s work in the early 1950’s.the first book-length treatment of epistemic logic- the logic of knowledge- is Hintikka’s seminal work knowledge and belief, which appeared in 1962. The 1960’s saw a flourishing of interest in this area of philosophy community. The major interest was in trying to capture the inherent properties of knowledge. Axioms for knowledge were suggested, attacked, and defended. ... in philosophy, starting with early Greek philosophers. Questions such as"what do we know" and "what does it mean to say that someone know something" have been discussed in philosophical literature. The idea of a formal logical analysis of reasoning about knowledge is somewhat more recent, but goes back at least to Von Wright's work in the early 1950's.the first book-length treatment of epistemic logic- the logic of knowledge- is Hintikka's seminal work knowledge and belief, which appeared in 1962. The 1960's saw a flourishing of interest in this area of philosophy community. The major interest was in trying to capture the inherent properties of knowledge. Axioms for knowledge were suggested, attacked, and defended. More recently, researchers in such diverse fields as economics, linguistics, AI (artificial intelligence), and theoretical computer science has become interested in reasoning about knowledge. While, of course, some of the issues that concerned the philosophers have been of interest to these researchers as well, the focus of attention has shifted. For one thing, there are pragmatic concerns about the relationship between knowledge and action.It may seem, what ever the merits of a metaphysical description of the world, that knowledge itself cannot be one of its objects, for knowledge is of the world, or not at least not only in the world. But there is nothing that is not in the world. The supposition that there is, in this case, is largely due to a picturesque conception of the self and a related conception of knowledge which have dominated most of continental philosophy at least since Fichte, although Hume warned against them in 1739.they may be